From mitochondrial-targeted peptides to telomerase research, here is a comparison of the peptides most studied in aging-related research, and the evidence behind each.
NAD+ (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) is a coenzyme present in every living cell, central to converting nutrients into cellular energy and supporting enzymes involved in DNA repair and mitochondrial function. NAD+ levels are well documented to decline with age, which has driven substantial research interest in restoring it directly or via precursor compounds (NMN, NR) to study effects on cellular energy metabolism and age-related decline.
Epithalon (AEDG) is a synthetic tetrapeptide developed by Vladimir Khavinson's research group, based on the amino acid composition of epithalamin, a pineal-gland extract. It is studied mainly for effects on telomerase activity and telomere length in cultured human cells.
SS-31 (elamipretide) is a small mitochondria-targeted peptide designed to bind a lipid on the inner mitochondrial membrane, studied for its effect on stabilizing mitochondrial structure and energy-production efficiency in cells under metabolic stress.
MOTS-c is a 16-amino-acid peptide unusual in that it's encoded within mitochondrial DNA rather than nuclear DNA. It's studied as a regulator of cellular metabolism and has been called an "exercise mimetic" because the body's own skeletal-muscle MOTS-c levels rise sharply with physical exertion.
GHK-Cu is a naturally occurring copper-binding tripeptide (glycyl-L-histidyl-L-lysine) studied for its role in skin remodeling, wound healing, and antioxidant activity, largely through effects on gene expression tied to collagen and elastin production.
Vesugen is a synthetic tripeptide (Lys-Glu-Asp) from Vladimir Khavinson's peptide bioregulator research program, studied mainly for effects on vascular endothelial cells, including nitric-oxide- and prostaglandin-mediated vasorelaxation and markers of endothelial aging.
Pinealon is a synthetic tripeptide (Glu-Asp-Arg) developed by Vladimir Khavinson's research group, studied in laboratory models for neuroprotective effects, including suppression of reactive-oxygen-species accumulation and modulation of apoptosis-related signaling in neural cells.
FOXO4-DRI is a designed peptide built to block a protein-protein interaction inside senescent ("zombie") cells that normally helps those cells avoid self-destruction.
This guide summarizes published research findings only — it is not medical advice, a dosing recommendation, or a claim about safety or effectiveness for human use. For Research Purposes Only, Not For Human Consumption.